LEARNING 1.3

LEARNING 1.3

[SOCIAL & COGNITIVE LEARNING]

In Social Learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) states behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.  

Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. Individuals that are observed are called models. In society children are surrounded by many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer group and teachers at school.

There is a fair amount of influence on development generated by learned behavior displayed in the environment in which one grows up. It might seem that social learning only takes place in human beings. However, many different species of animals are capable of observational learning. For example, a monkey in the zoo, sometimes imitates human visitors or other monkeys.

Children will have a number of models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such as parents or elder siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in the media. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior.  If parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are”, this is rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior.  Her behavior has been reinforced (i.e. strengthened).

COGNITIVE LEARNING/ SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING

Cognitive learning/ Social Cognitive Learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive processes-the procedures we have for manipulating information 'in our heads'. "Cognitive learning is the result of listening, watching, touching, contemplating or experiencing." In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading, or experiencing and then processing and remembering the information.

Cognitive learning might seem to be passive learning, because there is no motor movement. However, the learner is quite active, in a cognitive way, in processing and remembering newly incoming information.

LEARNING 1.2

LEARNING 1.2

[THEORIES OF LEARNING: 

BEHAVIOURISTIC THEORY]

Behaviouristic Theory:

“Behaviorism is a learning theory that studies observable and measurable behavioral changes, which result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner.”

Classical Conditioning:

This theory stems from the work of Pavlov who studied animal behavior, and was able to condition a dog to associate the ringing of a bell with food. Pavlovian conditioning is known as classical conditioning.

Operant Conditioning:

Pavlov's experiment was later developed by Watson and Skinner. Skinner introduced the theory of operant conditioning (i.e., a behavior followed by a reinforcement; results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future; a behavior followed by a punishment is weakened in the future). 

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement theory provides two methods of increasing desirable behaviors.  One is positive reinforcement and the other is negative reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement: Give (+) what individuals like when they have performed the desired behavior.

Negative Reinforcement: Remove (-) what individuals do not like when they have performed the desired behavior.

Note: In the case of negative reinforcement, it is important to remember that negative does not mean "bad", just the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. Positive and negative have similar connotations in the application of punishment.

NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT & POSITIVE PUNISHMENT

Reinforcement theory provides two methods of eliminating undesirable behaviors.  One is negative punishment and the other is positive punishment. 

Positive Punishment: Give (+) individuals what they do not like when they have performed the undesired behavior. Positive punishment is what we think of when we think of a "punishment"

Negative Punishment: Remove (-) what individuals like when they have performed the undesired behavior.

Note: Behaviorism in the classroom: Behaviorist techniques have long been applied in educational practices, especially in classroom and behavior management. The teacher in a primary role wherein he or she adjusts the learner's behavior and directs learning through drill and practice, through habit-breaking, and punishment/reward.

(to be continued...)

LEARNING 1.1

LEARNING 1.1

[FUNDAMENTALS OF LEARNING]

Introduction:

• Learning is one of the important psychological processes effecting human behaviour.
• Learning is any relative permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.
• The meaning of learning is a change in the behavior of a person due to practice and experience.
• When the behaviour of a person changes (positively/ negatively) continuously, it means he is learning something.
• Learning is an important concept in the study of human behaviour.
• Learning is a continuous process. It occurs all the time.

Concept/ Components/ Characteristics/ Elements of Learning:

• In a layman’s view, “learning is something we did when we went to school.”
• In reality, learning is happening all the time with every new experience, new event or new situation.
• Learning is a change in behavior through education, training, practice and experience.
• If reinforcement does not accompany the practice or experience, the temporary changes in behaviour will eventually disappear.
• It is reinforcement which makes learning or change in behaviour enduring.
• Based on this concept of reinforcement, the principle of conditioning has been developed.

Definitions: 

1. “Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.”          ~ Stephen Robbins
2. “Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of prior experience.”    ~ Hilgard
3. “Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience.” ~ Morgan

Nature of Learning: 

• Learning involves change. It can be good or bad for the organisation.
• The change should be permanent to constitute learning.
• Change must be based on some experience, practice or training.
• The individual can learn but in the absence of motivation  cannot show any change in behaviour.
• Further the experience, practice or training should be reinforced to make it permanent.

 (to be continued...) 

COMMUNICATION 1.8

COMMUNICATION 1.8

[7 Cs & ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS WORLD]

                                            

1. Correctness

At the time of encoding, if the encoder has comprehensive knowledge about the decoder of message, it makes the communication an ease. The encoder should know the status, knowledge and educational background of the decoder. Correctness means: Use the right level of language, Correct use of grammar, spelling and punctuation & Accuracy in stating facts and figures. “Correctness in message helps in building confidence.”

2. Clarity

Clarity demands the use of simple language and easy sentence structure in composing the message. When there is clarity in presenting ideas, it’s easy for the receiver/decoder to grasp the meaning being conveyed by the sender/encoder. “Clarity makes comprehension easier.”

3. Conciseness

A concise message saves time of both the sender and the receiver. Conciseness, in a business message, can be achieved by avoiding wordy expressions and repetition. Using brief and to the point sentences, including relevant material makes the message concise. Achieving conciseness does not mean to loose completeness of message. "Conciseness saves time.”

4. Completeness

By completeness means the message must bear all the necessary information to bring the response you desire. The sender should answer all the questions and with facts and figures. and when desirable, go for extra details. “Completeness brings the desired response.”

5. Consideration

Consideration demands to put oneself in the place of receiver while composing a message. It refers to the use of You attitude, emphases positive pleasant facts, visualizing reader’s problems, desires, emotions and his response. “Consideration means understanding of human nature.”

6. Concreteness

Being definite, vivid and specific rather than vague, obscure and general leads to concreteness of the message. Facts and figures being presented in the message should be specif. “Concreteness reinforces confidence.”

7. Courtesy

In business, almost everything starts and ends in courtesy. Courtesy means not only thinking about receiver but also valuing his feelings. Much can be achieved by using polite words and gestures, being appreciative, thoughtful, tactful, and showing respect to the receiver. Courtesy builds goodwill. “Courtesy strengthen relations.”

     “Communication is simply a method of sending a message from one person or group of persons to another. It is of vital importance to a business because it involves all the persons and organizations connected with the business - employees, customers, shareholders, suppliers - and a whole range of people outside - tax authorities, local government and national government officials and indeed, any person or organization throughout the world with which the business has any contact.”

•     Facilitates Planning: Communication enables the management to secure useful information from the lower management, workers & office staff, without which it would be impossible to formulate company policies & practices.

•      Helps in Decision Making: Communication is the basis of decision making. An effective communication enables both the management and the subordinates to identify the real problems and take appropriate decisions.

•      Supports Co-ordination: Communication is a must for co-ordination. The upward, downward and horizontal interactions between members at all levels of the organization hierarchy is impossible without communication.

•     Improves Superior–Subordinate Relationship: Communication promotes the exchange of ideas between the superiors and the subordinates as a result of flow of information and discussion between them. This ultimately improves superior-subordinate relationship.

•      Helps in Motivation & Morale Building: Workers’ participation in decision making and information sharing gives them a sense of responsibility and ultimate satisfaction. And it develops a sort of self motivation within the workers.  

•      Higher Productivity at Lower Cost: Effective communication saves time and effort. It increases productivity and reduces cost. Communication provides ‘Will To Work’. Employees feel more interested and confident if policies & plans are communicated to them effectively.

•    Creates Mutual Trust & Confidence: Effective communication creates mutual trust and confidence between the management and the workers. The sharing of ideas and experiences, workers participation in management eliminates fears and misunderstanding.

COMMUNICATION 1.7

 COMMUNICATION 1.7

[PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION & 
IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION]

 (i) Principle of Clarity, (ii) Principle of Completeness, (iii) Medium of Communication, (iv) Principle of Integrity, (v) Principle of Strategy, (vi) Principle of Timeliness, (vii) The Rule of Feedback.

(i) Principle of Clarity

• The objective of the communication must be clear.
• Manager should know what he wants to communicate.
• He should always keep in view the education, experience & familiarity with the language of the receiver.
• Communication should be in an easily understandable language.

(ii) Principle of Completeness

• An effective communication must be adequate & complete in all respects.
• All the necessary information must be there.
• If something valid is missing, this might result in an incorrect meaning.

(iii) Medium of Communication

• Medium of communication must be carefully selected.
• It depends on subject matter, urgency of communication, situation etc.

(iv) Principle of Integrity

• Communication is a tool for maintaining necessary cooperation between superior & subordinates for attaining organizational objectives.
• Messages should not be mutually conflicting so that any chaos & confusion could be avoided.

(v) Principle of Strategy

• Principle of Strategy means strategic use of communication.
• There should be a good superior-subordinate relationship based on openness and trust.
• Everybody should feel free to communicate, to make suggestions and share ideas.
• There must the right climate in the organization to facilitate communication.

(vi) Principle of Timeliness

• Any information is useless if its not communicated to the proper person on time.
• All communication should be made on time to remain effective.
• Communication made late serves no purpose.

(vii) The Rule of Feedback

• As per this rule, two more additional steps are required to complete the process of communication.
• 1. Acceptance of communication by receiver, 2. Feedback to the sender.
• There should be a follow up communication to know if the receiver has got the message correctly or not.
• Feedback is necessary to ensure understanding.

 Importance of Business/ Professional Communication

1. Professional communication plays a crucial role in any organization.
2. Whether It’s Verbal Communication like face to face or telephonic conversation, meetings, seminars, conferences, instructions, presentations, group discussions, interviews et al.
3. …Or It’s Written Communication like memos, letters, e-mails, faxes, notices, circulars, newsletters, reports, proposals, research papers, manuals, in-house journals, brochures et al.
4. All managerial or administrative activities involve communication be it planning, organizing, recruiting, or decision making.
5. The various types of communication not only help an organization to grow, but also enable the communicators to develop certain attributes.
6. The higher your position, greater is your need to communicate (effectively).
7. To become an effective communicator, there is one and only one key: Communicate, Communicate and Communicate…
8. It’s very necessary that all forms of communication (both verbal and written) should exist in an organization.
9. It’s this communication only which enables employees to work together.
10. It’s impossible for an organization to survive without communication.

(to be continued...) 

COMMUNICATION 1.6

COMMUNICATION 1.6

[BARRIERS of COMMUNICATION]

1. INTRAPERSONAL BARRIERS

2. INTERPERSONAL BARRIERS

3. ORGANIZATIOPNAL BARRIERS

1. INTRAPERSONAL BARRIERS

Individuals are unique. Differences in experiences, education, values, and personality. Interpretation of the same information differently. Intrapersonal Barriers occur due to,

a. Wrong Assumptions, b. Varied Perceptions, c. Differing Background, d. Wrong Inferences, e. Impervious Categories, f. Categorical Thinking.

a. Wrong Assumptions 

• Sender & Receiver being unknown to each other’s background, experience or education.
• Try to put yourself in the shoes of the listener.

b. Varied Perceptions 

• Individuals also perceive situations differently.
• None of them is wrong.
• It’s all a matter of perception.
• The best way is to step back & take a wider perspective.

 c. Differing Backgrounds 

• No two persons have similar background.
• Empathy or identification with another person is the solution.
• Use language understood by the receiver to avoid any uncertainty.
• One ought to be cautious while using words. Words must be suited to the      audience. 
• Express your ideas as simply and clearly as possible.

d. Wrong Inferences 

• Sometimes we fail to distinguish between what actually exists and what we had assumed.
• Inferences are more dramatic than facts, and they give more scope for gossip & rumour.
• Facts are essential to analyse material, solve problems and plan procedures.

 e. Impervious Categories 

• People of impervious category generally don’t want to deviate from their point of view.
• Such people are very rigid in their opinion and may face problems in communicating effectively.
• They tend to ignore variations & differences, which lead to unreliable conclusions.
• This is a result of having closed mind. Such people are called misoneists.

 f. Categorical Thinking 

• People who feel that they ‘know-it-all’ are called pansophists. 
• This type of thinking can pose a major barrier, leading to a failure in communication. 
• “All/ Always/ Everybody/ Everything/ Every time/ None/ Never/ Nobody/ Nothing…"
• To avoid this barrier, Use ‘in most situations’, ‘likely’, ‘the evidence indicate’, etc.
• If data is insufficient, its better to admit that we are unaware of the rest of the information.

2. Interpersonal Barriers

Interperasonal barriers stem from an individual’s attitudes or habits, whereas interpersonal barriers occur due to the inappropriate transaction between two or more people. The most common reasons are, 

a. Limited Vocabulary, b. Incongruity of  verbal & nonverbal message, c. Emotional Outbursts, d. Communication Selectivity, e. Cultural Variations, f. Poor Listening Skills, g. Noise in the Channel.

a. Limited Vocabulary

• An inadequate vocabulary can be a major hindrance in communication. 
• Make constant efforts to increase your vocabulary by reading books and listening to good speakers. 
• Enjoy the language! 

b.   Incongruity of Verbal & Non-verbal Message 

• The difference between the verbal & non-verbal communication leaves the listeners feeling confused & puzzled.
• Non-verbal communication usually enhances and enlivens verbal communication.
• Physical appearance is also important. 

c. Emotional Outbursts 

• Emotions are an integral part of our life. 
• Positive emotions if used reasonably can make the communication more effective. 
• Excessive emotional involvement can be an obstacle in communication. Like extreme anger.

 d. Communication Selectivity 

• If in a communication process, receiver pays attention only to a part of the message, this barrier is called Communication Selectivity. 
• We do so because we may be interested only in that part which may be of use to us. 
• Here sender is generally not at fault. 

e.   Cultural Variations 

• One of the predominant factors in communication failure.
• Globalization
• Multinational workforce
• Know the business practices, social customs,, and etiquette of a particular country.

f. Poor Listening Skills

           

• A common obstacle. 
• Difference between listening & hearing. 
• Emotional disturbances, indifference, wandering attention, self centeredness  etc. 
• Good speaker as well as better listener. 
• Pay proper attention, ask questions at the appropriate moment, don’t jump to the conclusions, maintain your composure. 

g.   Noise in the Channel 

• Any unwanted signal which interferes in the flow of communication. 
• Can also be of visual, audio-visual, written, physical or psychological forms. 
• Reduced interest of receiver in the message.  

  3. Organizational Barriers

In organizations with many levels of communication, messages have a greater chance of being distorted. This occurs due to, 

a. Too Many Transfer Stations, b. Fear of Superiors, c. Negative Tendencies, d. Use of Inappropriate Media, e. Information Overload.

a. Too Many Transfer Stations 

• Usually messages get distorted in huge organizations with several layers of communication channels. 
• Because of poor listening, lack of concentration, communication selectivity etc.
• Transfer stations do serve the purpose but too many of them must be avoided.

                                                    b.   Fear of Superiors 

• In rigidly structured organizations, fear of the superiors prevents subordinates from speaking frankly.
• Its essential to create an open environment to increase the confidence of      people to speak freely. 
• By encouraging active participation from the subordinates, more fresh ideas, resources and solutions could be arranged.

c.   Negative Tendencies

• Conflict of ideas between members and non-members of a work group. 
• And it paves the way for negative tendencies in the organization.
• Leading to create noise in interpersonal communication.

      d.   Use of Inappropriate Media

•     While choosing the medium, one should keep in mind the advantages, disadvantages and potential barriers to communication.
•    Following factors should be considered, (i) time, (ii) cost, (iii) type of message, (iv) intended audience. 
•    Usually, a mix of media is best for effective communication. 

e.   Information Overload

• Huge amount of data: one of the major problems faced by organizations today.
• Usually results in fatigue, disinterest and boredom.
• Quality of information is more important than the quantity of information.
• Screening of information must be done to highlight the major points.

                  (to be continued...)